بهداشت محیط و ارزیابی خطر ریسک مخاطرات ۲۰۱۷
Environmental Health and Hazard Risk Assessment 2017

1. Cover

2. Half Title

3. Title Page

4. Copyright Page

5. Dedication

6. Table of Contents

7. Preface

8. Introduction

9. Part I Introductory Comments

1 About the Book

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Why Use Risk-Based Decision Making?

1.3 Book Contents

1.4 Definitions

1.5 Risk Terms

1.6 Financial Risk

17. References

2 History of Environmental Health Problems

2.1 Introduction

2.2 First Humans

2.3 Development of Agriculture

2.4 Colonization of the New World

2.5 Industrial Revolution

24. References

3 History of Environmental Hazard Problems

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Early Accidents

3.2.1 Great Chicago Fire

3.2.2 South Fork Dam: Johnstown, Pennsylvania

3.2.3 Oppau, Germany

3.2.4 East Ohio Gas Company: Cleveland, Ohio

3.2.5 Texas City, Texas

3.3 Recent Major Accidents

3.3.1 Flixborough, England

3.3.2 Seveso, Italy

3.3.3 Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania

3.3.4 Chernobyl, Russia

3.3.5 Bhopal, India

3.3.6 Ashland Oil, Pennsylvania

3.3.7 Trans World Airlines: Long Island, New York

3.4 Major Accidents in the Twenty-First Century

3.4.1 Y2K

3.4.2 The Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami

3.4.3 Katrina

3.4.4 2010 Earthquakes

3.4.5 Chilean Mine Accident

3.4.6 BP Disaster

3.5 Advances in Safety Features

49. References

4 Health Risk versus Hazard Risk

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Introduction to the Health Risk Assessment Process

4.3 Introduction to the Hazard Risk Assessment Process

4.4 Qualitative Risk Scenarios

4.5 What Are the Differences?

4.6 Uncertainty Factors

4.7 Future Trends in Environmental Risk Assessment

58. References

5 Environmental Regulatory Framework

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Regulatory System

5.3 Laws and Regulations: The Differences

5.4 Role of the States

5.5 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

5.6 Major Toxic Chemical Laws Administered by the U.S. EPA

5.7 Legislative Tools for Controlling Water Pollution

5.7.1 Clean Water Act

5.7.2 Safe Drinking Water Act

5.7.3 Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (Title 1)

5.8 Oil Pollution Act

5.9 Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) of 1986

5.10 Clean Air Act

5.10.1 Provisions for Attainment and Maintenance of National Ambient Air Quality Standards

5.10.2 Provisions Relating to Mobile Sources

5.10.3 Air Toxics

5.10.4 Acid Deposition Control

5.10.5 Operating Permits

5.10.6 Stratospheric Ozone Protection

5.10.7 Provisions Relating to Enforcement

5.10.8 Provisions Relating to Chemical Accidents and Hazards

5.11 Occupational Safety and Health Act

5.12 EPA’s Risk Management Program

5.13 Pollution Prevention Act of 1990

84. References

6 Emergency Planning and Response

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Need for Emergency Response Planning

6.3 Planning Committee

6.4 Hazards Survey

6.5 Plan for Emergencies

6.6 Training of Personnel

6.7 Notification of Public and Regulatory Officials

6.8 Plan Implementation

6.8.1 General Questions

6.8.2 Emergency Organization

6.8.3 Emergency Action

6.8.4 Alarms

6.8.5 Communications

6.8.6 Evacuation

6.8.7 Accounting for Personnel

6.8.8 First Aid

6.8.9 Transportation

6.8.10 Security

6.8.11 Firefighting

6.8.12 Outside Agencies

6.8.13 Training

6.9 Other State Regulatory Initiatives

6.9.1 New Jersey Toxic Catastrophe Prevention Act

6.10 Illustrative Examples

110. References

111. Part II Health Risk Assessment

7 Introduction to Health Risk Assessment

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Health Risk Evaluation Process

7.3 Health Problem Identification

7.4 Toxicology and Dose–Response

7.5 Exposure Assessment

7.6 Health Risk Characterization

119. References

8 Health Problem Identification

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Toxicology Principles

8.3 Epidemiology Principles

8.4 Molecular/Atomic Structural Analysis

8.5 Material Safety Data Sheets

8.6 Engineering Problem Solving

8.7 Fate of Chemicals in the Environment Related to Health Problems

8.8 Carcinogens versus Noncarcinogens

8.8.1 Noncarcinogens

8.8.2 Carcinogens

131. References

9 Toxicity and Dose–Response

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Definitions

9.3 Toxicology

9.4 Epidemiology

9.5 Noncarcinogens

9.5.1 Concept of Threshold

9.5.2 Derivation of an Oral RfD

9.5.3 Derivation of an Inhalation RfD

9.5.4 Derivation of a Subchronic RfD

9.5.5 Derivation of Developmental Toxicant RfD

9.5.6 Calculation Scheme for Noncarcinogens

9.5.7 Dose–Response Relationships

9.6 Carcinogens

9.6.1 Concept of Nonthreshold Effects

9.6.2 Assigning a Weight of Evidence

9.6.3 Generating a Slope Factor

9.6.4 Identifying the Appropriate Data Set

9.6.5 Dose–Response Relationships

9.7 Uncertainties/Limitations

9.7.1 Uncertainties Related to Toxicity Information

153. References

10 Exposure Assessment

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Components of an Exposure Assessment

10.2.1 Step 1: Characterization of Exposure Setting

10.2.2 Step 2: Identification of Exposure Pathways

10.2.3 Step 3: Quantification of Exposure

10.2.4 Step 4: Quantification of Intakes

10.3 Dispersion in Water Systems

10.3.1 Rivers and Estuaries

10.3.2 Lakes and Impoundments

10.3.3 Groundwater

10.4 Dispersion in Soils

10.5 Dispersion in the Atmosphere

10.5.1 Effective Height of Atmospheric Emissions

10.5.2 Atmospheric Dispersion Equations for Continuous Sources

10.5.3 Atmospheric Dispersion Equations for Instantaneous Sources

170. References

11 Health Risk Characterization

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Qualitative Health Risk Scenarios

11.3 Quantitative Risk: Noncarcinogens

11.3.1 Risks for Multiple Substances

11.3.2 Noncarcinogenic Effects: Chronic Exposures

11.3.3 Noncarcinogenic Effects: Subchronic Exposures

11.3.4 Noncarcinogenic Effects: Less than 2 Week Exposures

11.3.5 Segregation of Hazard Indices

11.3.6 Combining Risks across Exposure Pathways

11.4 Quantitative Risk: Carcinogens

11.4.1 Risks for Multiple Substances

11.4.2 Combining Risk across Exposure Pathways

11.5 Risk Uncertainties/Limitations

11.5.1 Uncertainty and Variability

11.5.2 Assessment and Presentation of Uncertainty

11.6 Risk-Based Decision Making

11.7 Public Perception of Risk

11.7.1 Everyday Risks

11.7.2 Outrage Factors

191. References

192. Part III Hazard Risk Assessment

12 Introduction to Hazard Risk Assessment

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Risk Evaluation Process for Accidents

12.3 Hazard Identification

12.4 Probability and Causes of Accidents

12.5 Consequences of Accidents

12.6 Hazard Risk Characterization

200. References

13 Hazard/Event Problem Identification

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Process Equipment

13.2.1 Reactors

13.2.2 Heat Exchangers

13.2.3 Mass Transfer Equipment

13.2.3.1 Distillation Columns

13.2.3.2 Adsorbers

13.2.3.3 Absorbers

13.2.4 Ancillary Equipment

13.2.5 Environmental Control Equipment

13.2.6 Utilities

13.2.7 Protective and Safety Systems

13.2.8 Process Diagrams

13.2.9 Plant Siting and Layout

13.3 Classification of Accidents

13.3.1 Equipment Failures

13.3.2 Human Errors and Occupational Mishaps

13.3.2.1 Human Element

13.3.2.2 Task Variables

13.3.2.3 Environmental Element

13.3.3 Transport Accidents

13.3.4 Electrical Failures

13.3.5 Nuclear Accidents

13.3.6 Natural Disasters

13.4 Fires, Explosions, Toxic Emissions, and Hazardous Spills

13.4.1 Fire Fundamentals

13.4.2 Plant Fires

13.4.3 Causes of Plant Fires

13.4.4 Explosion Fundamentals

13.4.5 Unconfined Vapor Cloud Explosions (UVCEs)

13.4.6 Plant Explosions

13.4.7 Toxic Emissions

13.4.8 Hazardous Spills

13.5 Hazard Event Evaluation Techniques

13.5.1 System Checklists

13.5.2 Safety Reviews/Safety Audits

13.5.3 “What If” Analyses

13.5.4 Preliminary Hazard Analyses (PHAs)

13.5.5 Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) Studies

241. References

14 Hazard/Event Probability

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Accident Causes

14.3 Series and Parallel Systems

14.4 Probability Distributions

14.4.1 Binomial Distribution

14.4.2 Poisson Distribution

14.4.3 Exponential Distribution

14.4.4 Normal Distribution

14.4.5 Log-Normal Distribution

14.5 Weibull Distribution

14.6 Fault Tree Analysis

254. References

15 Hazard/Event Consequences

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Accident Minimization/Prevention

15.3 Consequence Estimation

15.4 Failure Modes, Effects, and Criticality Analysis (FMECA)

15.5 Vulnerability Analysis

15.6 Event Tree Analysis

262. References

16 Hazard Risk Characterization

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Risk Characterization

16.3 Public Perception of Risk

16.4 Risk Communication

16.5 Cause–Consequence Analysis

16.6 Qualitative Hazard Risk Assessment

16.7 Uncertainties/Limitations

16.8 Quantitative Hazard Risk Assessment

272. References

273. Part IV Case Studies

17 The Case for Case Studies

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Case Study Criteria: Is It Logical, Relevant, and Reasonable?

17.3 Preparing a Case Study Solution

278. Reference

18 Monte Carlo Simulation

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Case Study 1: Time to Pump Failure

18.3 Case Study 2: Time to Failure of Two Electrical Components

18.4 Case Study 3: Nuclear Plant Temperature Gauge Lifetime

18.5 Case Study 4: Bus Section Failures in Electrostatic Precipitators

285. References

19 Emergency Planning and Response

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Case Study 1: Terrorist Attack of a Pharmaceutical Company’s Plant in Greenpoint, Brooklyn, New York

19.3 Case Study 2: Terrorist Attack of the Brooklyn Navy Yard in Greenpoint, Brooklyn, New York

19.4 Case Study 3: Plans to Counter the Possibility of a Process or Plant-Related Accident at the “Wedo” Chemical Facility in Suffolk County, Long Island, New York

19.5 Case Study 4: Dilution Ventilation Models

292. References

20 Natural Disasters

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Case Study 1: Hurricanes

20.3 Case Study 2: Floods

20.4 Case Study 3: Earthquakes

20.5 Case Study 4: Meteorites

20.6 Case Study 5: Combined Hurricanes and Flooding

300. References

21 Industrial Accidents

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Case Study 1: Nanochemical Plant Accident

21.3 Case Study 2: Caustic Tank Preliminary Hazard Analysis

21.4 Case Study 3: Transportation of Hazardous Chemicals

21.5 Case Study 4: Offshore Rig Accident

307. References

308. Afterword

309. Index