اکسیداسیون و خوردگی فلزات در دمای بالا ۲۰۰۸
High Temperature Oxidation and Corrosion of Metals 2008

Preface p. ix Glossary of Symbols p. xiii Abbreviations and Acronyms p. xvii 1 The Nature of High Temperature Oxidation p. 1 1.1 Metal Loss Due to the Scaling of Steel p. 1 1.2 Heating Elements p. 4 1.3 Protecting Turbine Engine Components p. 5 1.4 Hydrocarbon Cracking Furnaces p. 9 1.5 Prediction and Measurement p. 10 1.6 Rate Equations p. 15 1.7 Reaction Morphology: Specimen Examination p. 22 1.8 Summary p. 26 References p. 26 2 Enabling Theory p. 29 2.1 Chemical Thermodynamics p. 30 2.2 Chemical Equilibria Between Solids and Gases p. 34 2.3 Alloys and Solid Solutions p. 42 2.4 Chemical Equilibria Between Alloys and Gases p. 46 2.5 Thermodynamics of Diffusion p. 51 2.6 Absolute Rate Theory Applied to Lattice Particle Diffusion p. 55 2.7 Diffusion in Alloys p. 58 2.8 Diffusion Couples and the Measurement of Diffusion Coefficients p. 63 2.9 Interfacial Processes and Gas Phase Mass Transfer p. 66 2.10 Mechanical Effects: Stresses in Oxide Scales p. 71 References p. 76 Further Reading p. 77 3 Oxidation of Pure Metals p. 81 3.1 Experimental Findings p. 82 3.2 Use of Phase Diagrams p. 84 3.3 Point Defects and Non-Stoichiometry in Ionic Oxides p. 85 3.4 Lattice Species and Structural Units in Ionic Oxides p. 89 3.5 Gibbs-Duhem Equation for Defective Solid Oxides p. 91 3.6 Lattice Diffusion and Oxide Scaling: Wagner's Model p. 93 3.7 Validation of Wagner's Model p. 96 3.8 Impurity Effects on Lattice Diffusion p. 113 3.9 Microstructural Effects p. 115 3.10 Reactions Not Controlled by Solid-State Diffusion p. 127 3.11 The Value of Thermodynamic and Kinetic Analysis p. 133 References p. 135 4 Mixed Gas Corrosion of Pure Metals p. 139 4.1 Introduction p. 139 4.2 Selected Experimental Findings p. 140 4.3 Phase Diagrams and Diffusion Paths p. 147 4.4 Scale-Gas Interactions p. 154 4.5 Transport Processes in Mixed Scales p. 168 4.6 Predicting the Outcome of Mixed Gas Reactions p. 175 References p. 181 5 Oxidation of Alloys I: Single Phase Scales p. 185 5.1 Introduction p. 185 5.2 Selected Experimental Results p. 187 5.3 Phase Diagrams and Diffusion Paths p. 193 5.4 Selective Oxidation of One Alloy Component p. 196 5.5 Selective Oxidation of One Alloy Component Under Non-Steady-State Conditions p. 202 5.6 Solid Solution Oxide Scales p. 206 5.7 Transient Oxidation p. 216 5.8 Microstructural Changes in Subsurface Alloy Regions p. 226 5.9 Breakdown of Steady-State Scale p. 237 5.10 Other Factors Affecting Scale Growth p. 241 References p. 243 6 Oxidation of Alloys II: Internal Oxidation p. 247 6.1 Introduction p. 247 6.2 Selected Experimental Results p. 248 6.3 Internal Oxidation Kinetics in the Absence of External Scaling p. 255 6.4 Experimental Verification of Diffusion Model p. 260 6.5 Surface Diffusion Effects in the Precipitation Zone p. 267 6.6 Internal Precipitates of Low Stability p. 273 6.7 Precipitate Nucleation and Growth p. 278 6.8 Cellular Precipitation Morphologies p. 284 6.9 Multiple Internal Precipitates p. 290 6.10 Solute Interactions in the Precipitation Zone p. 299 6.11 Transition from Internal to External Oxidation p. 301 6.12 Internal Oxidation beneath a Corroding Alloy Surface p. 305 6.13 Volume Expansion in the Internal Precipitation Zone p. 306 6.14 Success of Internal Oxidation Theory p. 311 References p. 312 7 Alloy Oxidation III: Multiphase Scales p. 315 7.1 Introduction p. 315 7.2 Binary Alumina Formers p. 316 7.3 Binary Chromia Formers p. 326 7.4 Ternary Alloy Oxidation p. 330 7.5 Scale Spallation p. 341 7.6 Effects of Minor Alloying Additions p. 347 7.7 Effects of Secondary Oxidants p. 352 7.8 Status of Multiphase Scale Growth Theory p. 355 References p. 356 8 Corrosion by Sulfur p. 361 8.1 Introduction p. 361 8.2 Sulfidation of Pure Metals p. 362 8.3 Alloying for Sulfidation Protection p. 367 8.4 Sulfidation in H[subscript 2]/H[subscript 2]S p. 378 8.5 Effects of Temperature and Sulfur Partial Pressure p. 381 8.6 The Role of Oxygen p. 382 8.7 Internal Sulfidation p. 383 8.8 Hot Corrosion p. 383 8.9 Achieving Sulfidation Resistance p. 391 References p. 392 9 Corrosion by Carbon p. 397 9.1 Introduction p. 398 9.2 Gaseous Carbon Activities p. 400 9.3 Carburization p. 402 9.4 Internal Carburization of Model Alloys p. 403 9.5 Internal Carburization of Heat Resisting Alloys p. 415 9.6 Metal Dusting of Iron and Ferritic Alloys p. 421 9.7 Dusting of Nickel and Austenitic Alloys p. 435 9.8 Protection by Oxide Scaling p. 444 9.9 Controlling Carbon Corrosion p. 449 References p. 450 10 Effects of Water Vapour on Oxidation p. 455 10.1 Introduction p. 455 10.2 Volatile Metal Hydroxide Formation p. 458 10.3 Scale-Gas Interfacial Processes p. 468 10.4 Scale Transport Properties p. 472 10.5 Water Vapour Effects on Alumina Growth p. 488 10.6 Void Development in Growing Scales p. 489 10.7 Understanding and Controlling Water Vapour Effects p. 490 References p. 492 11 Cyclic Oxidation p. 497 11.1 Introduction p. 497 11.2 Alloy Depletion and Scale Rehealing p. 502 11.3 Spallation Models p. 506 11.4 Combination of Spalling and Depletion Models p. 514 11.5 Effects of Experimental Variables p. 517 11.6 Describing and Predicting Cyclic Oxidation p. 527 References p. 530 12 Alloy Design p. 533 12.1 Introduction p. 533 12.2 Alloy Design for Resistance to Oxygen p. 534 12.3 Design Against Oxide Scale Spallation p. 537 12.4 Design for Resistance to Other Corrodents and Mixed Gases p. 538 12.5 Future Research p. 539 12.6 Fundamental Research p. 544 12.7 Conclusion p. 547 References p. 547 Appendix A High Temperature Alloys p. 549 Appendix B Cation Diffusion Kinetics in Ionic Solids p. 553 Appendix C The Error Function p. 561 Appendix D Self-Diffusion Coefficients p. 565 Index.